Section 1.1: Lead's Pervasive Role in Roman Life

“At the height of the Roman Empire's power, lead production reached approximately 80,000 tons per year, with its various compounds creatively utilized in numerous applications. The prevalence of lead poisoning was widespread, with its severity often correlating with social status.”

— D E Woolley, Neurotoxicology, via Pubmed

Science writer Emily Sohn from Dartmouth College notes that lead was one of the earliest metals mined, dating back over eight millennia. Its malleability and resistance to corrosion made it a valuable resource. Lead was integral to Rome's initial plumbing systems, with pipes discovered bearing emperor insignias. Its uses extended to tableware, cosmetics, currency, ammunition, and even as a sweetener when sugar or honey was scarce.

This widespread use of lead can be likened to the health hazards posed by asbestos in modern times. Given that the elite consumed more goods than the general populace, they would inevitably encounter higher levels of lead exposure. Sohn also points out that both Julius Caesar and Octavian were thought to be sterile. Additionally, many aristocrats suffered from "saturnine gout," a condition potentially linked to lead toxicity, alongside the unusual health issues observed in emperors.

Evidence suggests that children across the empire were also exposed to lead. Joanna Moore and colleagues detailed in their research published in the International Journal of Osteoarchaeology the first bioarchaeological evidence indicating that lead poisoning contributed to high infant mortality and childhood morbidity rates throughout the Roman Empire. They examined enamel samples from both child and adult skeletons, finding that young individuals who died early exhibited significantly higher lead levels in their teeth.

But what happens to children who survive such exposure? The World Health Organization states:

“Survivors of severe lead poisoning may experience lasting intellectual disabilities and behavioral disorders. Even at lower exposure levels, which might not present obvious symptoms, lead is now recognized to cause a range of injuries affecting multiple body systems. In particular, it can hinder brain development in children, resulting in lower IQs, diminished attention spans, and increased antisocial behavior…”

Some of these affected children eventually grew into adulthood, including those who would later become emperors.

Subsection 1.1.1: An Examination of Infamous Emperors

As Paul Ratner discusses in his article for Big Think, several Roman emperors exhibited behaviors that would put even the most notorious modern figures to shame. Caligula, for instance, indulged in the wives of his subjects, orchestrated mass executions for amusement, and summarily executed attendees at plays that bored him. Nero, on the other hand, was known for murdering family members, brutally assaulting a pregnant lover, and lavishly spending public funds on extravagant entertainment and executions.

Then there's Commodus, whose reign was marked by outlandish acts. Elagabalus shocked Rome by dethroning Jupiter as the chief deity, promoting his preferred god instead, and even engaging in self-circumcision. He further scandalized society by selling his services in brothels. Vitellius was notorious for his gluttony, reportedly summoning ships to transport exotic delicacies, while Caracalla slaughtered critics and family members indiscriminately. Tiberius, shunned by his own mother, retreated to an island, surrounding himself with children under dubious circumstances.

So, could these infamous emperors be suffering from cognitive decline due to lead exposure? It’s hard to say definitively. The intoxicating effects of unchecked power and wealth may have contributed as well. The high child mortality rates within the empire, including those experienced by Marcus Aurelius himself, adds an element of strangeness to this narrative. Despite having access to the best resources of his time, Marcus lost nearly sixty percent of his children before they reached adulthood, with Commodus as the lone survivor.

While we may never conclusively prove that lead poisoning caused the erratic leadership of Rome's emperors, the theory is certainly plausible, particularly given the documented instances of insanity among some rulers. Ultimately, it appears that a combination of a toxic social environment and the psychological ramifications of power may have played a role.

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