Trauma: Origins and Definitions

To understand trauma, we must first clarify its definition and explore its historical context within psychology and sociology. The term "trauma" can refer to both a specific traumatic event and the ongoing experience of trauma that follows. In essence, an event is defined as traumatic if it induces lasting traumatization, while the experience of trauma is shaped by the event(s) that triggered it.

Historically, "trauma," derived from the Greek word for "wound," initially referred to physical injuries caused by sudden accidents or violence. This medical term evolved into psychological discourse throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, notably associated with John Eric Erichsen's diagnosis of "railway spine," which highlighted psychological symptoms arising from traumatic incidents. Over time, various conditions such as "hysteria" and "shell-shock" were recognized as manifestations of trauma, ultimately coalescing into our modern understanding of the term.

Trauma overwhelms the nervous system, disrupting its ability to return to a baseline state, resulting in persistent psychological, physiological, and behavioral changes. Interestingly, our bodies do not possess distinct pathways for trauma; rather, trauma arises from the same processes that lead to non-traumatic stress. The distinction between stress and trauma lies not in the physiological response itself, but in the body's capacity to regain equilibrium.

This indicates that trauma is highly subjective. Two individuals may undergo the same event yet respond differently—one may emerge traumatized while the other does not. The perception of trauma is influenced by numerous factors, including physiological responses, past experiences, and the meanings we attribute to events.

Depending on the duration and impact of subsequent traumatization, a psychologist may diagnose someone with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, I do not intend to delve into diagnostic criteria here, as I personally view post-traumatic stress as not a disorder but rather a response to trauma.

This brings us to a critical question: if trauma is such a deeply individual experience, how can we conceptualize collective trauma?

What Is Collective Trauma?

While individual responses to stress and trauma vary widely, there are shared patterns that allow us to discuss trauma at a collective level. Just as we can identify universal expressions of emotions like depression, we can also recognize that many individuals can collectively experience trauma.

Collective trauma refers to trauma that affects a social group. However, measuring this phenomenon is more complex. For instance, it is challenging to assert that trauma following an event like 9/11 uniformly impacted all New Yorkers in a physiological manner.

Nonetheless, collective identities and psychological phenomena do exist. Crowd psychology illustrates how group behavior can diverge from individual actions, and biological studies have shown that collective organisms can exhibit unique behaviors. We also recognize the profound influence of culture on our individual psychologies, shaping our beliefs, behaviors, and even physiological responses.

Our individual agency is often interwoven with cultural narratives, leading us to question: what constitutes "this culture"? If a culture possesses its own psyche—preferences, memories, and narratives—it is plausible to consider it may also experience collective trauma. The challenge lies in diagnosing such trauma, as psychological disorders are often defined by deviations from cultural norms.

Instead of labeling behaviors as "disordered," we might better understand them as cultural tendencies. For example, emotional expressiveness in Italian culture differs from the more reserved nature of British culture.

How Does a Collective Get Traumatized?

Identifying a traumatized society is complex. We lack a clear control group representing an untraumatized culture. While it may not be possible to delineate societies in rigid terms, we can observe patterns of trauma reflected in societal behavior.

Jeffrey Alexander, a prominent sociologist, suggests that collective trauma arises from how social groups interpret events. Many societies endure stressful experiences, yet not all frame these as collective trauma. For an event to achieve cultural significance, it must gain symbolic power within a society.

Conversely, scholars like Vamik Volkan argue that collective trauma resembles individual trauma, permeating a group's identity and influencing its collective psyche. This psychological transmission of trauma becomes woven into the fabric of collective identity, shaping emotional and conceptual experiences over time.

I lean toward Volkan's perspective, which aligns collective trauma with individual trauma while acknowledging Alexander's insights regarding narrative power. The transmission of trauma within a society can occur through the symbolic representation of traumatic events, shaping the collective experience.

Collective trauma can also extend beyond social groups, affecting broader societal structures. Trauma can manifest in economic and political systems, which have their own psychological character and norms. This raises the question: can we consider economies or governments as traumatized entities?

Is Your Society Traumatized? Take This Quiz from BuzzFeed!

From a sociological lens, we can affirm that collective trauma does exist. Societies exhibit behavioral patterns influenced by past traumas. Just as we can assess individual trauma symptoms, we can observe similar characteristics in social groups.

While I don't advocate labeling collectives as "disordered," we can note behaviors that suggest trauma. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress, such as fear, emotional dysregulation, and social isolation, can manifest within communities. Some groups may display extreme reactions to perceived threats, while others may define their identity around shared traumatic histories.

Clear indicators of collective post-traumatic stress can be found in various societies. Hyper-militarism, xenophobia, and the invocation of past suffering to justify current actions illustrate how trauma shapes societal behavior. The ongoing reliance on unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as environmental degradation, further highlights this dynamic.

Traumatized individuals often unconsciously seek out situations that resemble their initial trauma in an attempt to resolve it. This tendency can extend to societal behaviors; for instance, a nation grappling with a collective identity tied to a history of discrimination may perpetuate similar injustices against other groups.

Psychological trauma is more than a physiological phenomenon; it also encompasses mental and conceptual dimensions. Our past experiences and beliefs shape how we interpret and respond to trauma, which is why trauma therapies often focus on cognitive processes.

Envisioning Therapy for a Traumatized Society

If we accept that collective trauma mirrors individual trauma, we might explore ways in which trauma therapy can inform collective healing.

Tirzah Firestone outlines seven core principles of healing from trauma:

1. Facing the loss — Acknowledging and experiencing the pain of traumatic events.
2. Harnessing our pain — Reconnecting with our physical bodies, even when it's challenging.
3. Finding new community — Emerging from isolation into shared experiences with others.
4. Resisting fear, blame, and dehumanization — Moving towards empathy instead of hatred.
5. Disidentifying from victimhood — Reclaiming our agency and power.
6. Redefining specialness — Recognizing our interdependence and the universality of trauma.
7. Taking action — Making meaningful changes in our lives and behaviors.

While numerous frameworks exist for trauma healing, these principles resonate across therapeutic disciplines. They encompass facing reality, allowing emotional expression, fostering community, and instigating meaningful change.

Here are some collective interventions that could facilitate societal trauma healing, reflecting principles from individual trauma therapy:

1. Public recognition and discussion of traumatic events, such as Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs).

   The South African TRC, established post-apartheid, aimed to give victims and perpetrators a platform to share their stories. However, criticisms highlight the need for ongoing integration of these truths into societal frameworks.

2. Making tangible amends, such as reparations and returning stolen land.

   Unacknowledged traumas persist across generations, as seen with the legacies of slavery and colonization in the US. Genuine acknowledgment requires integrating these realities into present actions.

3. Community conferencing and town halls.

   Town halls following disasters can offer spaces for dialogue, but they often lack the power to instigate real change. Integrating community pain into actionable plans can foster collective agency.

4. Changing laws and power structures.

   Acknowledging trauma means allowing it to reshape societal structures. Addressing inequalities and injustices is essential for collective healing.

5. Direct democracy, such as neighborhood assemblies and participatory budgeting.

   Empowering communities to directly engage in decision-making fosters agency and addresses genuine needs.

6. Protests and uprisings.

   Rather than causing trauma, protests often stem from a desire for change. They provide a platform for sharing experiences and advocating for societal needs.

7. Mutual aid in response to disasters.

   Mutual aid emphasizes collective responsibility and resilience, fostering community connections during crises.

8. Ecosystem restoration and regenerative lifestyles.

   Healing our relationship with the natural world is integral to addressing collective trauma.

9. And many more!

   Numerous other initiatives—like public art, economic democracy, and expanding human rights—contribute to collective healing.

Conclusion: There Is So Much We Don’t Know Yet

This exploration has been lengthy and touched on numerous interconnected subjects. Despite the existing research, our understanding of collective trauma remains incomplete. We are still unraveling how it transmits and its implications for societal structures.

Yet, everywhere I look, I see efforts to heal. From lifestyle changes to political restructuring, people are actively engaged in addressing the ruptures in our shared humanity. While we may not yet have a clear vision of a healthy society, the collective movement toward healing is undeniably underway.