Spice 1: Pepper — Vasco da Gama — Piperine

Pepper, native to India, has been cherished in Europe since ancient times. As it cannot be cultivated in Europe, it was imported from India, primarily traveling through Baghdad to Istanbul and then to Venice until the Middle Ages.

Up until the 12th century, a pound of pepper equated to the price of a slave. Many history books claim that pepper was crucial for meat preservation in an age devoid of refrigeration, due to its antibacterial, antiseptic, and insect-repelling qualities.

However, I contest this theory. Meat coated in pepper would not remain fresh for long. So, what drove people to seek out pepper for over 1,500 years? Penny Le Couteur and Jay Burreson, authors of "Napoleon's Buttons: How 17 Molecules Changed History," provide insight: "To mask the taste of decaying meat."

Indeed, pepper likely softened the intense salty flavor of preserved meat, as other seasoning options were limited to wine, vinegar, citrus, ginger, and saffron, all of which were also imported from India.

Pepper, the fruit of a vine, comes in various forms based on its ripeness and processing methods. The most recognized type is black pepper, made from unripe green fruits that are dried. Green pepper, often confused with bell pepper in English, is fleetingly fresh, utilized in dishes like Thai cuisine or freeze-dried for preservation.

When fully ripened, the fruit turns red, known as pink pepper, commonly used in South American dishes. In English, red pepper refers to chili, thus the term pink arose. White pepper is produced by removing the outer layer of red pepper.

Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese explorer, was instrumental in establishing a direct maritime route for pepper from India to Europe. Departing Lisbon in 1497 with four ships, he navigated southward around Africa's tip, then along the coast to present-day Kenya. From there, he crossed the Indian Ocean, reaching Kolkata (Calcutta). While local traders were already aware of this route, Da Gama became the first to sail directly from Europe to India.

This newfound route allowed Portugal to dominate the pepper trade, leading to the expansion of their maritime empire that reached as far as Nagasaki, Japan. Omura Sumitada, a Christian feudal lord during Japan's Warring States period, gifted Nagasaki to the Jesuits in 1580, temporarily making it a Portuguese territory.

The active compound in pepper is piperine, which chemists depict in structural diagrams.

Next, we turn to the story of chili pepper.

Spice 2: Chili Pepper — Christopher Columbus — Capsaicin

As previously noted, Europeans had an insatiable appetite for pepper, which was immensely lucrative. The Venetian merchants who controlled land routes amassed great wealth, followed closely by the Portuguese, who dominated maritime routes.

Spain, hindered by Portugal's control of the eastward route, sought a westward passage. In 1492, prior to Da Gama's expedition, the Italian adventurer Christopher Columbus set sail from a Spanish port with three ships.

Believing in a round Earth, Columbus assumed that a westward journey would lead him to India. However, he underestimated the Earth's size, mistakenly calculating the distance between the Canary Islands and Japan as 2,400 nautical miles, when it actually spanned 10,600 nautical miles.

Fortuitously for Columbus, the American continent lay in his path. On his third voyage in 1498, he reached what is now Venezuela. Upon seeing the Onorico River, he realized he had discovered a new continent, yet he never fully acknowledged this fact during his lifetime.

Initially dubbed Colombia, believing it to be part of East Asia, the area was later recognized as a distinct continent thanks to Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci's 1503 essay, "The New World." This paper clarified that Colombia was an unfamiliar territory, and the violent actions of Columbus were met with disapproval back home, leading to the name America.

Columbus also referred to the islands east of America as the West Indies. During his second voyage in 1493, he arrived in Haiti and brought back red chili peppers, which he mistakenly thought were a form of Indian pepper.

Although initially not well received in Europe, chili peppers gained immense popularity in India and Asia. The cultural exchange that occurred post-1492, termed the Columbian Exchange by historian Alfred Crosby, is well-known for its transfer of diseases, but it also included a significant exchange of food culture.

The pungent component in chili peppers is capsaicin, which chemists illustrate in structural diagrams.

Isn't capsaicin somewhat reminiscent of piperine? This similarity contributes to the sensation of heat. Both compounds induce a painful sensation in humans, validating Columbus's initial misjudgment in classifying chili peppers as a type of Indian pepper.

Finally, we explore the stories of clove and nutmeg.

Spice 3: Clove and Nutmeg — Ferdinand Magellan — Eugenol and Isoeugenol

In the early 16th century, the Portuguese established a stronghold in the Moluccas (Maluku), known as the Spice Islands, in modern-day Indonesia, where they sought cloves and nutmeg. Though these spices originate from different islands, their characteristics are remarkably similar.

Clove and nutmeg are aromatic spices that have historically been valued. During the Han Dynasty in China, cloves were used to freshen breath. The essential oil from cloves possesses disinfectant properties and was often utilized in traditional medicine. In Japan, clove oil was even employed to prevent rust on swords.

Nutmeg complements potatoes and is a staple in European cooking. It was once believed to ward off the plague, leading to fierce competition among the wealthy to acquire it.

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, departed with five Spanish ships in 1519. He aimed to circumnavigate the globe westward, aiming for the Moluccas while avoiding Portuguese control. Though he had fallen out of favor with the Portuguese king and relocated to Spain, the Treaty of Tordesillas encouraged Spain's westward ambitions, granting Portugal the eastern half of the globe and Spain the western half.

After much perseverance, Magellan discovered the Strait of Magellan at South America's southern tip and crossed the Pacific to reach Asia. Tragically, he died before reaching the Moluccas, but his remaining ships completed the journey, returning to Spain with 26 tons of spices.

Although Spain later aimed to seize control of the Spice Islands, they struggled to oust the Portuguese. The Dutch and British, recognizing the profitability of cloves and nutmeg, engaged in fierce battles for dominance over the Spice Islands, first between the Netherlands and Portugal, and subsequently between the Netherlands and England.

By the late 16th century, the Dutch managed to expel the Portuguese from the Moluccas. The Shimabara Rebellion in Japan, while primarily viewed as a conflict between the Edo Shogunate and farmers, also reflected the tension between the Dutch and Portuguese.

Throughout the 17th century, the once-mighty Portuguese maritime empire dwindled, and centers of the European spice trade shifted to Amsterdam and London, where the Dutch East India Company monopolized nutmeg.

Despite clove and nutmeg being sourced from different locations, their chemical structures are similar. Clove's primary component is eugenol, while nutmeg's is isoeugenol.

The structures of eugenol and isoeugenol reveal their likeness.

Both eugenol and isoeugenol are used in perfumes and culinary flavoring. Just as with black and chili peppers or clove and nutmeg, there are moments when superficially similar items reveal deeper connections. This is the beauty of chemistry. By understanding these connections, we can anticipate future outcomes and innovate accordingly.

Next time you sprinkle pepper—be it black or red—consider its chemical composition and the adventurers who cherished these spices.