In the opening of Being and Time, Martin Heidegger, a prominent continental philosopher, critiques various fields of science for their inability to address the fundamental question of "what is being?" He argues that these disciplines remain "blind and perverted" due to this oversight.

Heidegger surprisingly offers an answer right at the beginning, stating that being— the essence that identifies entities as entities—is that through which we already comprehend them. For me, grasping this notion was an unexpected beginning that shaped my thoughts around existentialism.

Expanding on Heidegger’s Initial Concept of “What Is Being?”

Heidegger uses the term Dasein to refer to the being for whom the question of being is significant. Unlike Cartesian notions of mind or body, Dasein signifies a human being situated within the world. It encompasses our identity, shaped by the choices we make.

From a phenomenological standpoint, as Dasein, we evolve daily, influenced by our stances on our existence. When we encounter another being, we possess an inherent understanding of being; without this understanding, we would struggle even to ask "what is being?" Thus, comprehension of being is intrinsic to Dasein.

Heidegger starts to unveil Dasein’s understanding of being by examining the phenomenology of everyday life. This exploration clarifies Dasein’s mode of being-in-the-world.

Being-in-the-world denotes existing within our surroundings. Dasein is not merely a spatial entity like a match within a matchbox. Instead, it feels at home within the world it recognizes.

The "in" of "being-in-the-world" should be interpreted existentially, similar to the phrase "being in love." It doesn’t imply a literal immersion in love. Phenomenologically, the experience of being-in-the-world signifies an absorbed engagement. In our daily routines, we navigate our environment seamlessly. For instance, when we wake up, we brush our teeth, shower, and dress without conscious thought, as we are engrossed in our surroundings and the tools we utilize, such as a toothbrush or soap.

Phenomenology of Engaging with Everyday Tools

Our phenomenological interaction with daily tools is practical, yet our comprehension of these tools is contextual. When I use a toothbrush, I simply see it as suitable for brushing teeth. The more I use it, the less I consider it as a mere tool. If asked why I use a toothbrush, my response would be, "that’s its purpose."

If I were to articulate my understanding of it, I wouldn’t focus on its plastic material or bristles, as my perception of it stems from its role in my everyday context.

The existence of a toothbrush is inherently tied to a broader context that includes toothpaste, floss, and mouthwash. Toothbrushes cannot be understood in isolation; they are discovered only within this larger framework. Moreover, the action of brushing my teeth exemplifies the "involvement" that the toothbrush embodies.

All tools and their functions are interconnected within a holistic framework and cannot be separated from this context. Each tool refers to others and interacts with them.

For example, when brushing my teeth, the toothbrush interacts with the toothpaste, enabling me to apply it effectively. Additionally, all activities coalesce into a totality of involvements. Thus, using a toothbrush relates to brushing teeth, which in turn connects to getting ready for work, leading to the role of being employed. Ultimately, this comprehensive network of tools and their functions relates to the potential of Dasein’s being—its ultimate purpose.

This ultimate purpose represents the stance Dasein takes concerning its existence. Once this purpose is integrated into the larger context, the world gains meaning and significance, allowing Dasein to navigate its existence. This meaning organizes all actions and renders the referential framework viable. For instance, as a writer, my identity as a writer shapes the meaning of all other aspects within my existence.

“The world is a system of purposes and meanings that organizes our activities and our identity, and within which entities can make sense.” — Richard Polt

The Structure of The World

Heidegger elucidates the structure of the world by describing the referential framework. Our phenomenological experiences condense into Heidegger’s notion of familiarity. Dasein understands the structure of the world and its significance. Our ability to navigate our surroundings is constantly intertwined with this referential framework.

When we effectively engage with our environment, we experience familiarity with the world. For instance, culture shock arises when someone visits a new place. Feelings of confusion and disorientation stem from an inability to engage with the referential framework.

Conversely, familiarity embodies the sensation of being at home. Knowing how to act in a familiar country becomes second nature; we take for granted the norms and customs. Familiarity empowers us to navigate the world effectively.

Familiarity allows for disclosure, making discovery possible. Heidegger uses the term disclosing to describe how the world opens up for entities to be discovered. Discovery involves encountering, utilizing, and repairing entities. Each tool’s involvement is revealed only after a prior understanding of a totality of involvements has been established.

However, the basis for these involvements—what enables entities to be recognized—does not constitute a discoverable entity. According to Heidegger, it equates to understanding the world (BT, 118).

Dasein's familiarity with significance within the world embodies this understanding. The abstract structure of the world may not need to be apparent for Dasein’s comprehension of being. What is essential for Dasein is this familiarity (BT, 119). This primordial coping ability enables us to navigate our surroundings. Without familiarity, Dasein would feel lost, unable to engage with the world. Even in moments of darkness and despair, as Dasein, we retain familiarity with our surroundings.

Conclusion

Dasein's mode of being—its existence in the world—represents its understanding of being, rooted in familiarity, which is crucial for Dasein's presence in the world.

With a nuanced interpretation of being, along with the conceptual tools Heidegger provides, we can formulate a more robust anthropological approach to studying individuals.

What is the Subject of Anthropological Inquiry?

Ethnographers face challenges when studying historical subjects, relying on documents to envision the lives of those they document.

However, interpreting these historical documents leaves the question of who or what is being examined open-ended. For instance, in reading The Sexual Life of Savages by Malinowski, it's ambiguous whether the meaningful subject is Malinowski himself, the "savages," or the reader. Should the ethnography be understood through Malinowski’s lens? Was "savage" a term meant to attract readers? Does he use it to imply "primitive," or do contemporary readers interpret "savage" as something dangerous or irrational? These questions arise from a lack of clarity regarding the subject, which also complicates anthropological investigations of humanity.

The ambiguity of the subject extends into anthropology’s primary method: participant observation. This method creates an interactive space between the researcher and the subject, leading to the presumption that anthropological claims accurately represent the studied subject. Yet, it's often unclear whether these claims reflect the subject, the researcher, or the context of their interaction. The confusion surrounding cultural understanding stems from a vague notion of what or who the subject of anthropological inquiry truly is.

Culture has traditionally served as the focal point of anthropological study, defined as a shared set of beliefs that generate norms guiding group practices. The term itself also evokes the idea of organic growth, reminiscent of evolutionary processes and agriculture. This understanding of culture implies an understanding of the people within it.

Despite its relevance, the concept of culture remains inadequate as the subject of anthropological inquiry. There is no single, homogeneous group sharing identical beliefs and norms. Instead, there exists a rich diversity of beliefs, practices, and norms that vary across space and time, often intersecting. To understand individuals or what it means to be one among these groups cannot rely solely on cultural definitions.

The Solution: Dasein

The concept of Dasein—humanity's familiarity with significance in the world—provides a more suitable foundation for anthropological inquiry. Heidegger's analysis can be interpreted as an anthropology of Dasein. However, while Heidegger's work is ontological, focusing on modes of being, an anthropological study of humans as Dasein is primarily concerned with ontic aspects—possible identities, such as being American or being a writer. Although ontology is intertwined with such studies, it is not the primary focus.

Interpreting Heidegger's analysis through the lens of anthropology of Dasein enables us to explore how to conduct studies on human beings as Dasein. This approach necessitates that the researcher is also a Dasein engaging in inquiry.

Studying any individual requires an understanding that allows for genuine observation. Thus, participant observation remains a valuable method. An anthropologist must align their being as closely as possible with that of the subject. For instance, if studying power dynamics, the anthropologist's being must approximate that of the powerless or the powerful. The notion of neutrality is unattainable in any anthropological study. Hence, this form of anthropology reflects the perspective of a powerful human being as Dasein. This is feasible because we possess a baseline understanding of what it means to be a powerful individual.

From the viewpoint of a powerful human as Dasein, the anthropologist must examine the structure of the world and its phenomena. Heidegger notes that our identities and activities are organized by the world's structure, which becomes meaningful only when Dasein asserts a stance on its existence.

Consequently, uncovering the structure of a powerful individual's world as Dasein requires a phenomenological interpretation of their everyday experiences. This process reveals the structure of their world, emerging from the totality of equipment and its interrelations. The ultimate purpose becomes significant and meaningful when Dasein asserts its identity as a powerful being, organizing that individual’s activities. Understanding the ultimate purpose of a powerful person is crucial for comprehending their identity, though it cannot be revealed as the world’s structure can. This is the limit of anthropological inquiry.

To move beyond this boundary, anthropologists must define their being in relation to it. Many have done so by advocating for the individuals they study. Anthropology, therefore, becomes as much an introspective process as it is an exploration of others.

The aim of anthropology is to clarify what it means to be human. The anthropologist achieves this by revealing the structure of the subject's world and providing a phenomenological interpretation of that world. Some insights may be offered, but they will always be limited.

The clarity or depth of insights provided by the anthropologist’s phenomenological interpretation will vary and may become a subject of scholarly debate. For activist-anthropologists, their inquiry transitions from focusing on the subjects being studied to an exploration of their own existence.

Some might argue that such an anthropology is unfeasible because one's way of being is always influenced by the social environment. While true, the success of the discussed anthropological approach hinges on how well one becomes familiar with the world of the subjects being studied. Much like someone relocating to a new country, initial struggles to engage can eventually lead to understanding. This understanding is not merely an examination of the "other" but an exploration of our shared humanity.

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