The Mystery of Ancient Urban Centers: Differentiating Cities from Settlements
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In the annals of human existence, two pivotal revolutions have profoundly influenced our way of life. The first was the Neolithic revolution, marking our shift from a hunter-gatherer existence to agricultural practices. Following this was the urban revolution, which commenced with the transformation of farming societies into urbanized communities, laying the foundation for subsequent advancements.
This urban revolution represented a significant turning point in our history. With food security achieved, we could devote more time and energy to innovations. But have you ever pondered when society transitioned from farming communities to urban centers? Was it a conscious decision to embrace city life, or did the need for specialized skills drive people to urban areas?
Imagine yourself as an archaeologist examining deserted ruins, reflecting on a world long lost to time. How can one discern whether a site is a city or merely a prehistoric agricultural settlement? Each time an archaeologist announces a new find, discussions erupt about which civilization is the oldest.
To eliminate misunderstandings, it is essential to define what constitutes a city and how it contrasts with a Neolithic settlement. To facilitate this, we will refer to the insights of a notable Australian archaeologist from the mid-20th century.
Defining a City: A Childe's Insight
In the early days of social media in the mid-2000s, I observed lively debates among individuals from various nations who used archaeological sites with remnants of human habitation as proof of ancient civilizations. While such discussions still occur, they are less frequent today.
Many were misled by pseudo-scientific narratives regarding whether sites like Catalhoyuk, Mehrgarh, and the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture can be accurately labeled as "cities" or if they qualify as civilizations. Before labeling any ancient site as a city, we must establish criteria; otherwise, we are merely speculating. What separates an ancient city from a Neolithic settlement?
In the 1950s, Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe proposed a set of criteria that distinguishes a city from other types of settlements. His list includes the following:
“In terms of size, the first cities must have been larger and more densely populated than any prior settlements.”
A city should encompass a greater area and have a higher population than a village or smaller community, a standard still applicable today in differentiating rural from urban centers.
“In terms of composition and function, the urban population differed from that of any village, comprising full-time specialist craftsmen, transport workers, merchants, officials, and priests.”
A city must demonstrate a clear division of labor and specialization in various professions.
“Each primary producer contributed the small surplus extracted from the land as a tithe or tax to a divine ruler, who concentrated the surplus.”
A city should generate surplus production, which is controlled by the elite.
“Monumental public buildings not only distinguish cities from villages but also symbolize the concentration of social surplus.”
Cities are characterized by significant architectural achievements such as temples, palaces, and granaries.
“Priests, civil and military leaders, and officials absorbed a significant share of this concentrated surplus, forming a ruling class.”
A city must possess a hierarchical system of governance with an identifiable ruling class.
“Writing.”
A defined system of writing and record-keeping is essential for a settlement to be recognized as a city.
“The development of precise and predictive sciences — including arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.”
Science and technology play a critical role in the advancement of a city, setting it apart from Neolithic settlements.
“Conceptualized and sophisticated artistic styles.”
The presence of art and architecture is vital for a city's identity.
“Regular long-distance trade.”
A city should function as a hub for extensive foreign trade rather than limited exchanges with nearby communities.
“A state organization based on residency rather than kinship.”
Governance is a crucial aspect of any city, where power is derived from official institutions rather than familial ties.
Childe's criteria for defining a city are quite comprehensive. However, are these standards sufficient for labeling a settlement as a city? Is it fair to assert that all these factors hold equal importance?
What Constitutes a "City"?
Consider criterion number 8 regarding the presence of complex artistic expressions. Such artistic achievements are not exclusive to cities; evidence of sophisticated art exists in Neolithic settlements as well. Paleolithic art, such as that found in Lascaux, France, or Bhimbetka, India, showcases high levels of creativity that predate urbanization.
Similarly, criterion 7 concerning scientific advancement is problematic. Arts and sciences developed prior to the urban revolution, with prehistoric humans providing clues to astronomical knowledge long before the establishment of cities. The Nebra Sky Disc (circa 1600 BC), discovered in Germany, may represent one of the earliest celestial maps.
Regarding monumental structures mentioned in criterion 4, Göbekli Tepe in modern-day Turkey challenges the notion that significant constructions are exclusive to cities. Although early human settlements lack numerous monumental structures, it does not imply they were absent entirely.
Is a writing system necessary for a settlement to be classified as a city, as suggested by Childe in criterion 6? Cities are often associated with advanced record-keeping, yet the Oxus civilization—known for its cultural sophistication—lacks substantial evidence of a comprehensive writing system akin to those of Mesopotamia or Egypt. While some signs of writing have been found, they do not indicate a robust record-keeping tradition. In places like Varanasi, India, urbanization appears to have flourished even before a formal writing system was established.
It's essential to recognize that many ancient civilizations relied on oral traditions for documentation. Additionally, it is plausible that records inscribed on perishable materials did not withstand the test of time. Given the evidence of long-distance trade, it seems improbable that sophisticated cultures like the Oxus or Varanasi lacked a form of record-keeping.
Excluding points 7 and 8, and to a lesser extent point 4, Childe's definition remains relevant. It aids in differentiating early Neolithic sites such as Catalhoyuk, Mehrgarh, and the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture from more established urban centers like Uruk, Nekhen, Mohenjodaro, and Byblos.
The urban revolution did not arise in isolation. Signs of urban development have emerged since the Neolithic revolution, allowing us to consider these sites as "proto-cities."
Why Don't We Classify Neolithic Settlements as Cities?
Neolithic settlements exhibit many characteristics typical of cities. Some, like the megasettlements of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture (5500 to 2750 BC), reached populations exceeding 40,000 at their height. These communities demonstrated advanced artistic expressions and agricultural knowledge. However, they lacked a defined social hierarchy, centralized government, and monumental architecture akin to that found in the Egyptian city of Nekhen or the Mesopotamian city of Ur.
The absence of several features outlined in Childe's definition raises questions about whether these settlements can be classified as cities. They may be more accurately termed proto-cities, representing a transitional phase toward the formation of larger urban centers.
In some cases, the environmental conditions also influenced the size of urban centers. The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture thrived in a region with more favorable conditions compared to the arid environments of Egypt or Mesopotamia. Rivers served as vital resources for early civilizations; it is no coincidence that the earliest cities developed near water sources.
As for long-distance trade, it played a crucial role in the growth of ancient societies, contributing to the evolution of farming communities into cities.
Do you agree with Childe's city definition? Are there additional criteria you would propose? Can you think of an ancient city that does not align with his definition?
Share your thoughts in the comments.
Among the ancient civilizations exhibiting advanced urban centers and extensive trade networks was the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC). While its cities often met many of Childe's criteria, they also defied several parameters.
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References
- Childe, Vere Gordon (1950). “The Urban Revolution”. The Town Planning Review. Liverpool University Press.
- Gates, Charles (2003). Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome.
- Ciuk, Krzysztof (2008). Mysteries of Ancient Ukraine: The remarkable Trypilian Culture, 5400–2700 BC. Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum.
- History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol I, UNESCO Publishing.